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Retroflexion in South Asia: Typological, genetic, and areal patterns

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Published/Copyright: February 28, 2017

Abstract

Retroflexion in South Asia has been the subject of at least two previous typological studies: Ramanujan and Masica (1969. Toward a phonological typology of the Indian linguistic area. In T. A. Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics, volume 5: Linguistics in South Asia, 543–577. Paris: Mouton) and Tikkanen (1999. Archaeological-linguistic correlations in the formation of retroflex typologies and correlating areal features in South Asia. In Roger Blench & Matthew Spriggs (eds.), Archaeology and language IV: Language change and cultural transformation, 138–148. London & New York: Routledge). Despite their many virtues, these studies are limited by the size of their data samples, their dependence on qualitative data without quantitative analysis, and their use of hand-drawn maps. This paper presents the results of an entirely new survey of retroflexion in South Asia – one that incorporates a larger language sample, quantitative analysis, and computer-generated maps. The study focuses on the genetic and geographic distribution of various retroflex subsystems, including retroflex obstruents, nasals, liquids, approximants and vowels. While it is possible to establish broad statistical correlations between specific types of contrast and individual language families (or sub-families), the study finds that the distribution of most retroflex systems is more geographic in nature than genetic. Thus, while retroflexion is characteristic of South Asia as a whole, each type of retroflex system tends to cut across genetic lines, marking out its own space within the broader linguistic area.

Acknowledgements

Special thanks to Peter Gallagher at Electric Retina (electricretina.com) for technical assistance with the QGIS software used to generate maps for this study.

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Appendices

This appendix provides information on the languages and data sources consulted for the typological survey in the paper Retroflexion in South Asia: Typological, genetic, and areal patterns. The appendix consists of two lists: one covering the languages surveyed within South Asia, and the other covering those surveyed in the regions surrounding South Asia. Each list is organized alphabetically by language name. The Ethnologue’s three-letter ISO code is also provided for each language (as best as I can determine it), along with the language’s genetic classification and data source(s). Some language names may correspond to more than one ISO code or vice versa. The following abbreviations are used for language classification:

AAAustro-AsiaticIIrIndo-IranianNuNuristani
AnAndamaneseIrIranianPaPalaungic
ChChineseKhKhasianSTSino-Tibetan
DrDravidianMuMundaTBTibeto-Burman
IAIndo-AryanNiNicobareseTKTai-Kadai

In many cases, multiple sources were consulted for a given language variety. Only the primary source (or sources) are listed here. Full bibliographic details for the data sources are provided in the list of references at the end of the appendix.

A South Asia language sample

This section lists 205 language varieties that are spoken largely (if not exclusively) within one or more of the South Asian countries (i. e., India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Maldives). Statistics concerning South Asian languages are based on data from these languages and sources.

LanguageISOClassSources
AitonaioTKMorey 2005
Andamanese, Greatabj, etc.AnManoharan 1989; Abbi 2006
Angami, KhonomanjmST, TBBlankenship et al. 1993
Ao Naga, ChunglinjoST, TBGowda 1972
Ao Naga, MongsennjoST, TBCoupe 2007
ApataniaptST, TBAbraham 1985
AssameseasmIIr, IAGoswami and Tamuli 2003
AthpareaphST, TBEbert 1997
AwadhiawaIIr, IASaksena 1937
BadagabfqDrHockings and Pilot-Raichoor 1992
BagribgqIIr, IAGusain 2000
Balochi, EasternbgpIIr, IrElfenbein 1997a; Jahani and Korn 2009
Balochi, Western/Southernbgn, bccIIr, IrElfenbein 1997a; Jahani and Korn 2009
BaltibftST, TBBackstrom 1994
Bareli, PawribfbIIr, IAImmanuel and Jane 2003
Bareli, RathwibgdIIr, IAVarkey and Vinod 2003
BelharebywST, TBBickel 2003
BengalibenIIr, IABhattacharya 1988; Dasgupta 2003
BhatribgwIIr, IAKirivasan and Amirthamary 2000
Bhil, DungraduhIIr, IAMathew and Susan 2000
Bhojpuri, NorthernbhoIIr, IAShukla 1981
Bhojpuri, SouthernbhoIIr, IAVerma 2003
BhumijunrAA, MuRamaswami 1992
BishnupriyabpyIIr, IASinha 1981
Bodo (Boro)brxST, TBBhattacharya 1977
BrahuibrhDrElfenbein 1997b
Brijia (Asuri)asrAA, MuSahu 1980
BrokskatbkkIIr, IARamaswami 1975; Bashir 2003
BundelibnsIIr, IAJaiswal 1962
BurushaskibskIsolateAnderson 1997
ByangsibeeST, TBTrivedi 1991
CamlingrabST, TBEbert 2003
ChantyalchxST, TBNoonan 2003a
ChepangcdmST, TBCaughley 1970
ChokrinriST, TBBielenberg and Nienu 2001
DamelidmlIIr, IAPerder 2013
DaraidryIIr, IAKotapish and Kotapish 1973
DeoriderST, TBJacquesson 2005
Desiya OriyadsoIIr, IAMathews 2003
DhankidhnIIr, IAKulkarni 1976
DhanwardhwIIr, IAKuegler and Kuegler 1974
DhimaldhiST, TBCooper 1999
DimasadisST, TBMisra 1986
Divehi (Maldivian)divIIr, IACain and Gair 2000
DogridgoIIr, IAGhai 1991
DomaakidmkIIr, IALorimer 1939
DumidusST, TBvan Driem 1993
DzongkhadzoST, TBvan Driem 1992
Gadaba, MudhiligauDrBhaskararao 1980, 1998
Gadaba, OllarigdbDrBhattacharya 1957
Gallong (Galo Adi)adlST, TBGupta 1963
GarasiagraIIr, IAPatel 1999
GarhwaligbmIIr, IAChandrasekhar 1970
Garo (Mande)grtST, TBBurling 2003
Gondi, Muriaemu, mutDrSteever 1998a
Gondi, SouthernggoDrSubrahmanyam 1968; Lincoln 1969
Gta’ (Gtaʔ)gaqAA, MuAnderson 2008
GujaratigujIIr, IAMistry 1997
Gurunggvr, ggnST, TBGlover 1970
Gutob (Gadaba)gbjAA, MuGriffiths 2008
Hakha LaicnhST, TBPeterson 2003
HaryanvibgcIIr, IASingh 1970
Hayu (Wayu)vayST, TBMichailovsky 2003
HindihinIIr, IAOhala 1994; Kaye 1997
HmarhmrST, TBBaruah and Bapui 1996
HohocAA, MuAnderson et al. 2008
Humla Bhotia, LimihutST, TBWilde 2001
IrulairuDrPeriyalwar 1979; Zvelebil 1973
JarawaanqAnAbbi 2006
JaunsarijnsIIr, IASatish 1990
Jero (Jerung)jeeST, TBOpgenort 2005
JireljulST, TBStrahm and Maibaum 1971
JuangjunAA, MuPatnaik 2008
KagatesywST, TBHoehlig and Hari 1976
Kalami (Kalam Kohistani)gwcIIr, IABaart 1997
KalashaklsIIr, IAHeegård and Mørch 2004
KangrixnrIIr, IASharma 1974
KannadakanDrSridhar 1990
Karbi (Mikir)mjwST, TBJeyapaul 1987
Kasaba (Irula)iruDrPillai 1976
KashmirikasIIr, IAWali and Koul 1997
KhalingklrST, TBToba and Toba 1972
KhamkjlST, TBWatters 2002
KhamyangksuTKMorey 2005
KhariakhrAA, MuPeterson 2011
KhasikhaAA, KhNagaraja 1989
KhowarkhwIIr, IABashir 2003
KinnaurikfkST, TBSharma 1988
KodakukszAA, MuKuriakkose and Liju 2008
KodavakfaDrBalakrishnan 1976; Ebert 1996
Kohistani, IndusmvyIIr, IAHallberg and Hallberg 1999
KoikktST, TBLahaussois 2009
Kok Borok (Tripuri)trpST, TBKarapurkar 1972
Kolami, NorthwesternkfbDrEmeneau 1961; Subrahmanyam 1998
Konda (Kubi)kfcDrKrishnamurti and Benham 1998
KonkaniknnIIr, IAMiranda 2003
Koraga, MuduvmdDrBhat 1971
Koraga, OntikfdDrBhat 1971
Koraga, TappukfdDrBhat 1971
KorkukfqAA, MuZide 1960, 2008
KorwakfpAA, MuGeorge and Joseph 2008
KotakfeDrSubbaiah 1986
KuikxuDrWinfield 1928
KulungkleST, TBTolsma 2006
KumaunikfyIIr, IAApte and Pattanayak 1967; van Riezen 2000
Kundal ShahishdIIr, IARehman and Baart 2005
KurtöpxkzST, TBHyslop 2008
Kurumba Kannada(Coimbatore)kfiDrErnest and Ernest 2000
Kurumba Kannada(Pudukkottai)kfiDrVarma 1978a
Kurumba, BettaxubDrSelvaraj and Selvaraj 2003
KuruxkruDrPfeiffer 1972
KusundakggIsolateWatters 2006
KuvikxvDrReddy et al. 1974; Israel 1979
KyerungkgyST, TBHuber 2005
LadakhilbjST, TBKoshal 1976
LamanilmnIIr, IATrail 1970
LepchalepST, TBPlaisier 2007
LhomilhmST, TBVesalainen and Vesalainen 1976
LimbulifST, TBvan Driem 1987
LisulisST, TBBradley 2003
Lotha NaganjhST, TBAcharya 1975
Lushai (Mizo)lusST, TBBurling 1957
MagahimagIIr, IAVerma 2003
Magar, EasternmgpST, TBShepherd and Shepherd 1971
MaithilimaiIIr, IAYadav 1996, 2003
MalayalammalDrAsher and Kumari 1997
Maltokmj, mjtDrMahapatra 1979; Steever 1998b
Manangba (Manange)nmmST, TBHildebrandt 2004
Mao NaganbiST, TBGiridhar 1994
MarathimarIIr, IAPandharipande 1997, 2003
Maria, Hill (Abujhmaria)mrrDrNatarajan 1985
Maria, DandamidaqDrSoundararaj and Soundararaj 1999
MarwarirwrIIr, IAGusain 2004
Meithei (Manipuri)mniST, TBChelliah 1997
MewatiwtmIIr, IAGusain 2003
Mishmi, DigaromhuST, TBSastry 1984
Mising (Miri)mrgST, TBPrasad 1991
MundariunrAA, MuOsada 2008
Naga, PhomnphST, TBBurling and Phom 1998
Nar PhunpaST, TBNoonan 2003b
NepalinepIIr, IARiccardi 2003
Newar, DolakhanewST, TBGenetti 2007
Newar, KathmandunewST, TBHargreaves 2003
Nicobarese, CarcaqAA, NiDas 1977
Nicobarese, CentralncbAA, NiRadhakrishnan 1981
OngeoonAnAbbi 2006
OriyaoriIIr, IARay 2003
PalulaphlIIr, IALiljegren 2016
PaniyapcgDrDaniel and Stephen 2003
Panjabi, EasternpanIIr, IABhatia 1993; Malik 1995
Pardhi (Bahelia)pclIIr, IASrivastava 1968
Parenga (Gorum)pcjAA, MuAnderson and Rau 2008
Parji (Duruwa)pciDrBurrow and Bhattacharya 1953
Pashto, NortheasternpbuIIr, IrElfenbein 1997c
Pashto, SoutheasternpbtIIr, IrElfenbein 1997c
PengopegDrBurrow and Bhattacharya 1970
PhakephkTKMorey 2005
PnarpbvAA, KhRing 2015
PurikprxST, TBZemp 2014
RabharahST, TBJoseph 2007
RājbanshirjsIIr, IAWilde 2008
Remo (Bonda)bfwAA, MuAnderson and Harrison 2008a
Rongmei NaganbuST, TBSreedhar 1979
Sadri (Sadani)sckIIr, IAJordan-Horstmann 1969
SantalisatAA, MuGhosh 2008
SaurashtrasazIIr, IANorihiko 1991
SawisdgIIr, IABashir 2003
Seke, TangbeskjST, TBHonda 2003
Sema (Sumi Naga)nsmST, TBSreedhar 1976
SeraikiskrIIr, IAShackle 1976
ShekawatiswvIIr, IAGusain 2001
SherpaxsrST, TBKelly 2004
Shina, GilgitsclIIr, IARadloff 1999
Shina, KohistaniplkIIr, IASchmidt and Kohistani 2008
Sikkimese (Denjongka)sipST, TBYliniemi 2005
SindhisndIIr, IAKhubchandani 2003; Nihilani 1999
SinhalesesinIIr, IAGair 2003
SorasrbAA, MuAnderson and Harrison 2008b
SpitisptST, TBSharma 1979
SunwarsuzST, TBBorchers 2008
Tamang, EasterntajST, TBMazaudon 2003
Tamil, KanniyakumaritamDrChristdas 1988
Tamil, MadrastamDrAnnamalai and Steever 1998; Keane 2004
Tangkhul NaganmfST, TBArokianathan 1987
TelugutelDrKrishnamurti 1998
Thado ChintczST, TBThirumalai 1972; Haokip 2008
ThakalithsST, TBHari 1970
ThangmithfST, TBTurin 2004
Tharu, ChitwantheIIr, IABoehm 1998
Tharu, DanguarathlIIr, IABoehm 1998
Tharu, KochilathqIIr, IABoehm 1998
Tharu, RanathrIIr, IABoehm 1998
Thulung RaitdhST, TBLahaussois 2003
TodatcxDrSakthivel 1976
TorwalitrwIIr, IALunsford 2001; Bashir 2003
TshanglatsjST, TBAndvik 2003
TulutcyDrBhat 1998
UraliurlDrLal 1991
UrduurdIIr, IASchmidt 2003
Vaagri BolivaaIIr, IAVarma 1970
WakhiwblIIr, IrBashir 2009; Satoko 2005
WambulewmeST, TBOpgenort 2004
Yerava (Ravula)yeaDrMallikarjun 1993
YerukalayeuDrVarma 1978b
ZanskarizauST, TBHoshi and Tsering 1978; Jerry and Jerry 2013

B Languages sampled outside of South Asia

This section lists 55 language varieties that are spoken in the regions surrounding South Asia (e. g., Southeast Asia, East Asia, Central Asia, etc.). These languages are included, along with those from Section 1 (above), on the maps that accompany the paper Retroflexion in South Asia: Typological, genetic, and areal patterns.

LanguageISOClassSources
AkhaahkST, TBLewis 1968
AmharicamhSemiticHayward and Hayward 1999
Arabic, GulfafbSemiticQafisheh 1977
Arabic, San'aniaynSemiticWatson 2002
AshkunaskIIr, NuStrand 2011d
Bai, YunnanbfsST, TBWiersma 2003
BurmesemyaST, TBWatkins 2001; Wheatley 2003
CantoneseyueST, ChZee 1999; Bauer and Matthews 2003
Caodeng RgyalrongjyaST, TBSun 2003
Cone (Choni)cdaST, TBJacques 2014
DariprsIIr, IrRees 2008
DulongduuST, TBLaPolla 2003a
HarsusihssSemiticJohnstone 1977
Jiarong (Cogtse)jyaST, TBNagano 2003
JinghpokacST, TBQingxia and Diehl 2003
KamvirixviIIr, NuStrand 2011a.
Karen, PwokjpST, TBKato 2003
KatibshIIr, NuStrand 2011b
Kayah, EasternekyST, TBSolnit 2003
Khmer (Cambodian)khmAA, KhmericBisang 2014
KirghizkirTurkicKirchner 1998
KoroshiktlIIr, IrNourzaei et al. 2015
LahulhuST, TBMatisoff 2003
LaolaoTKEnfield 2007
MandaicmidSemiticMalone 1997
Mandarin, StandardcmnST, ChDuanmu 2002
OiratxalMongolicBirtalan 2003
Palaung, ShwepllAA, PaMak 2012
ParachiprcIIr, IrKieffer 2009
Pashto, NorthwestpbuIIr, IrElfenbein 1997c
Pashto, SouthwestpbtIIr, IrElfenbein 1997c
Persian (Farsi)pesIIr, IrMajidi and Ternes 1999; Windfuhr 1997
Pumi, DayangpmjST, TBMatisoff 1997
Pumi, NiuwozipmjST, TBDing 2003
Pumi, WadupmiST, TBDaudey 2014
QiangcngST, TBLaPolla 2003b
RawangrawST, TBMorse 1963
ShughnisghIIr, IrEdelman and Dodykhudoeva 2009
SomalisomCushiticSaeed 1999
TajikitgkIIr, IrWindfuhr and Perry 2009
ThaithaTKTingsabadh and Abramson 1999
Thebocda (?)ST, TBLin 2014
Tibetan, Amdo (Labrang)adxST, TBMakley et al. 1999
Tibetan, Amdo (Ndzorge)adxST, TBSun 1986
Tibetan, Khams (Dege)khgST, TBHäsler 1999
Tibetan, Khams (Dongwang)khgST, TBBartee 2014
Tibetan, Khams (Kami)khgST, TBChirkova 2014
Tibetan, Khams (Rgyalthang)khgST, TBHongladarom 1996
Tibetan, LhasabodST, TBDeLancey 2003; Denwood 1999
TurkmentukTurkicSchönig 1998
UyghuruigTurkicComrie 1997; Hahn 1998
UzbekuznTurkicBoeschoten 1998
Vietnamese, NorthernvieAA, VieticBrunelle 2014
Vietnamese, SouthernvieAA, VieticBrunelle 2014
WaigaliwbkIIr, NuStrand 2011c

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Published Online: 2017-02-28
Published in Print: 2018-10-25

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