Abstract
Retroflexion in South Asia has been the subject of at least two previous typological studies: Ramanujan and Masica (1969. Toward a phonological typology of the Indian linguistic area. In T. A. Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics, volume 5: Linguistics in South Asia, 543–577. Paris: Mouton) and Tikkanen (1999. Archaeological-linguistic correlations in the formation of retroflex typologies and correlating areal features in South Asia. In Roger Blench & Matthew Spriggs (eds.), Archaeology and language IV: Language change and cultural transformation, 138–148. London & New York: Routledge). Despite their many virtues, these studies are limited by the size of their data samples, their dependence on qualitative data without quantitative analysis, and their use of hand-drawn maps. This paper presents the results of an entirely new survey of retroflexion in South Asia – one that incorporates a larger language sample, quantitative analysis, and computer-generated maps. The study focuses on the genetic and geographic distribution of various retroflex subsystems, including retroflex obstruents, nasals, liquids, approximants and vowels. While it is possible to establish broad statistical correlations between specific types of contrast and individual language families (or sub-families), the study finds that the distribution of most retroflex systems is more geographic in nature than genetic. Thus, while retroflexion is characteristic of South Asia as a whole, each type of retroflex system tends to cut across genetic lines, marking out its own space within the broader linguistic area.
Acknowledgements
Special thanks to Peter Gallagher at Electric Retina (electricretina.com) for technical assistance with the QGIS software used to generate maps for this study.
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Appendices
This appendix provides information on the languages and data sources consulted for the typological survey in the paper Retroflexion in South Asia: Typological, genetic, and areal patterns. The appendix consists of two lists: one covering the languages surveyed within South Asia, and the other covering those surveyed in the regions surrounding South Asia. Each list is organized alphabetically by language name. The Ethnologue’s three-letter ISO code is also provided for each language (as best as I can determine it), along with the language’s genetic classification and data source(s). Some language names may correspond to more than one ISO code or vice versa. The following abbreviations are used for language classification:
AA | Austro-Asiatic | IIr | Indo-Iranian | Nu | Nuristani |
An | Andamanese | Ir | Iranian | Pa | Palaungic |
Ch | Chinese | Kh | Khasian | ST | Sino-Tibetan |
Dr | Dravidian | Mu | Munda | TB | Tibeto-Burman |
IA | Indo-Aryan | Ni | Nicobarese | TK | Tai-Kadai |
In many cases, multiple sources were consulted for a given language variety. Only the primary source (or sources) are listed here. Full bibliographic details for the data sources are provided in the list of references at the end of the appendix.
A South Asia language sample
This section lists 205 language varieties that are spoken largely (if not exclusively) within one or more of the South Asian countries (i. e., India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Maldives). Statistics concerning South Asian languages are based on data from these languages and sources.
Language | ISO | Class | Sources |
---|---|---|---|
Aiton | aio | TK | Morey 2005 |
Andamanese, Great | abj, etc. | An | Manoharan 1989; Abbi 2006 |
Angami, Khonoma | njm | ST, TB | Blankenship et al. 1993 |
Ao Naga, Chungli | njo | ST, TB | Gowda 1972 |
Ao Naga, Mongsen | njo | ST, TB | Coupe 2007 |
Apatani | apt | ST, TB | Abraham 1985 |
Assamese | asm | IIr, IA | Goswami and Tamuli 2003 |
Athpare | aph | ST, TB | Ebert 1997 |
Awadhi | awa | IIr, IA | Saksena 1937 |
Badaga | bfq | Dr | Hockings and Pilot-Raichoor 1992 |
Bagri | bgq | IIr, IA | Gusain 2000 |
Balochi, Eastern | bgp | IIr, Ir | Elfenbein 1997a; Jahani and Korn 2009 |
Balochi, Western/Southern | bgn, bcc | IIr, Ir | Elfenbein 1997a; Jahani and Korn 2009 |
Balti | bft | ST, TB | Backstrom 1994 |
Bareli, Pawri | bfb | IIr, IA | Immanuel and Jane 2003 |
Bareli, Rathwi | bgd | IIr, IA | Varkey and Vinod 2003 |
Belhare | byw | ST, TB | Bickel 2003 |
Bengali | ben | IIr, IA | Bhattacharya 1988; Dasgupta 2003 |
Bhatri | bgw | IIr, IA | Kirivasan and Amirthamary 2000 |
Bhil, Dungra | duh | IIr, IA | Mathew and Susan 2000 |
Bhojpuri, Northern | bho | IIr, IA | Shukla 1981 |
Bhojpuri, Southern | bho | IIr, IA | Verma 2003 |
Bhumij | unr | AA, Mu | Ramaswami 1992 |
Bishnupriya | bpy | IIr, IA | Sinha 1981 |
Bodo (Boro) | brx | ST, TB | Bhattacharya 1977 |
Brahui | brh | Dr | Elfenbein 1997b |
Brijia (Asuri) | asr | AA, Mu | Sahu 1980 |
Brokskat | bkk | IIr, IA | Ramaswami 1975; Bashir 2003 |
Bundeli | bns | IIr, IA | Jaiswal 1962 |
Burushaski | bsk | Isolate | Anderson 1997 |
Byangsi | bee | ST, TB | Trivedi 1991 |
Camling | rab | ST, TB | Ebert 2003 |
Chantyal | chx | ST, TB | Noonan 2003a |
Chepang | cdm | ST, TB | Caughley 1970 |
Chokri | nri | ST, TB | Bielenberg and Nienu 2001 |
Dameli | dml | IIr, IA | Perder 2013 |
Darai | dry | IIr, IA | Kotapish and Kotapish 1973 |
Deori | der | ST, TB | Jacquesson 2005 |
Desiya Oriya | dso | IIr, IA | Mathews 2003 |
Dhanki | dhn | IIr, IA | Kulkarni 1976 |
Dhanwar | dhw | IIr, IA | Kuegler and Kuegler 1974 |
Dhimal | dhi | ST, TB | Cooper 1999 |
Dimasa | dis | ST, TB | Misra 1986 |
Divehi (Maldivian) | div | IIr, IA | Cain and Gair 2000 |
Dogri | dgo | IIr, IA | Ghai 1991 |
Domaaki | dmk | IIr, IA | Lorimer 1939 |
Dumi | dus | ST, TB | van Driem 1993 |
Dzongkha | dzo | ST, TB | van Driem 1992 |
Gadaba, Mudhili | gau | Dr | Bhaskararao 1980, 1998 |
Gadaba, Ollari | gdb | Dr | Bhattacharya 1957 |
Gallong (Galo Adi) | adl | ST, TB | Gupta 1963 |
Garasia | gra | IIr, IA | Patel 1999 |
Garhwali | gbm | IIr, IA | Chandrasekhar 1970 |
Garo (Mande) | grt | ST, TB | Burling 2003 |
Gondi, Muria | emu, mut | Dr | Steever 1998a |
Gondi, Southern | ggo | Dr | Subrahmanyam 1968; Lincoln 1969 |
Gta’ (Gtaʔ) | gaq | AA, Mu | Anderson 2008 |
Gujarati | guj | IIr, IA | Mistry 1997 |
Gurung | gvr, ggn | ST, TB | Glover 1970 |
Gutob (Gadaba) | gbj | AA, Mu | Griffiths 2008 |
Hakha Lai | cnh | ST, TB | Peterson 2003 |
Haryanvi | bgc | IIr, IA | Singh 1970 |
Hayu (Wayu) | vay | ST, TB | Michailovsky 2003 |
Hindi | hin | IIr, IA | Ohala 1994; Kaye 1997 |
Hmar | hmr | ST, TB | Baruah and Bapui 1996 |
Ho | hoc | AA, Mu | Anderson et al. 2008 |
Humla Bhotia, Limi | hut | ST, TB | Wilde 2001 |
Irula | iru | Dr | Periyalwar 1979; Zvelebil 1973 |
Jarawa | anq | An | Abbi 2006 |
Jaunsari | jns | IIr, IA | Satish 1990 |
Jero (Jerung) | jee | ST, TB | Opgenort 2005 |
Jirel | jul | ST, TB | Strahm and Maibaum 1971 |
Juang | jun | AA, Mu | Patnaik 2008 |
Kagate | syw | ST, TB | Hoehlig and Hari 1976 |
Kalami (Kalam Kohistani) | gwc | IIr, IA | Baart 1997 |
Kalasha | kls | IIr, IA | Heegård and Mørch 2004 |
Kangri | xnr | IIr, IA | Sharma 1974 |
Kannada | kan | Dr | Sridhar 1990 |
Karbi (Mikir) | mjw | ST, TB | Jeyapaul 1987 |
Kasaba (Irula) | iru | Dr | Pillai 1976 |
Kashmiri | kas | IIr, IA | Wali and Koul 1997 |
Khaling | klr | ST, TB | Toba and Toba 1972 |
Kham | kjl | ST, TB | Watters 2002 |
Khamyang | ksu | TK | Morey 2005 |
Kharia | khr | AA, Mu | Peterson 2011 |
Khasi | kha | AA, Kh | Nagaraja 1989 |
Khowar | khw | IIr, IA | Bashir 2003 |
Kinnauri | kfk | ST, TB | Sharma 1988 |
Kodaku | ksz | AA, Mu | Kuriakkose and Liju 2008 |
Kodava | kfa | Dr | Balakrishnan 1976; Ebert 1996 |
Kohistani, Indus | mvy | IIr, IA | Hallberg and Hallberg 1999 |
Koi | kkt | ST, TB | Lahaussois 2009 |
Kok Borok (Tripuri) | trp | ST, TB | Karapurkar 1972 |
Kolami, Northwestern | kfb | Dr | Emeneau 1961; Subrahmanyam 1998 |
Konda (Kubi) | kfc | Dr | Krishnamurti and Benham 1998 |
Konkani | knn | IIr, IA | Miranda 2003 |
Koraga, Mudu | vmd | Dr | Bhat 1971 |
Koraga, Onti | kfd | Dr | Bhat 1971 |
Koraga, Tappu | kfd | Dr | Bhat 1971 |
Korku | kfq | AA, Mu | Zide 1960, 2008 |
Korwa | kfp | AA, Mu | George and Joseph 2008 |
Kota | kfe | Dr | Subbaiah 1986 |
Kui | kxu | Dr | Winfield 1928 |
Kulung | kle | ST, TB | Tolsma 2006 |
Kumauni | kfy | IIr, IA | Apte and Pattanayak 1967; van Riezen 2000 |
Kundal Shahi | shd | IIr, IA | Rehman and Baart 2005 |
Kurtöp | xkz | ST, TB | Hyslop 2008 |
Kurumba Kannada(Coimbatore) | kfi | Dr | Ernest and Ernest 2000 |
Kurumba Kannada(Pudukkottai) | kfi | Dr | Varma 1978a |
Kurumba, Betta | xub | Dr | Selvaraj and Selvaraj 2003 |
Kurux | kru | Dr | Pfeiffer 1972 |
Kusunda | kgg | Isolate | Watters 2006 |
Kuvi | kxv | Dr | Reddy et al. 1974; Israel 1979 |
Kyerung | kgy | ST, TB | Huber 2005 |
Ladakhi | lbj | ST, TB | Koshal 1976 |
Lamani | lmn | IIr, IA | Trail 1970 |
Lepcha | lep | ST, TB | Plaisier 2007 |
Lhomi | lhm | ST, TB | Vesalainen and Vesalainen 1976 |
Limbu | lif | ST, TB | van Driem 1987 |
Lisu | lis | ST, TB | Bradley 2003 |
Lotha Naga | njh | ST, TB | Acharya 1975 |
Lushai (Mizo) | lus | ST, TB | Burling 1957 |
Magahi | mag | IIr, IA | Verma 2003 |
Magar, Eastern | mgp | ST, TB | Shepherd and Shepherd 1971 |
Maithili | mai | IIr, IA | Yadav 1996, 2003 |
Malayalam | mal | Dr | Asher and Kumari 1997 |
Malto | kmj, mjt | Dr | Mahapatra 1979; Steever 1998b |
Manangba (Manange) | nmm | ST, TB | Hildebrandt 2004 |
Mao Naga | nbi | ST, TB | Giridhar 1994 |
Marathi | mar | IIr, IA | Pandharipande 1997, 2003 |
Maria, Hill (Abujhmaria) | mrr | Dr | Natarajan 1985 |
Maria, Dandami | daq | Dr | Soundararaj and Soundararaj 1999 |
Marwari | rwr | IIr, IA | Gusain 2004 |
Meithei (Manipuri) | mni | ST, TB | Chelliah 1997 |
Mewati | wtm | IIr, IA | Gusain 2003 |
Mishmi, Digaro | mhu | ST, TB | Sastry 1984 |
Mising (Miri) | mrg | ST, TB | Prasad 1991 |
Mundari | unr | AA, Mu | Osada 2008 |
Naga, Phom | nph | ST, TB | Burling and Phom 1998 |
Nar Phu | npa | ST, TB | Noonan 2003b |
Nepali | nep | IIr, IA | Riccardi 2003 |
Newar, Dolakha | new | ST, TB | Genetti 2007 |
Newar, Kathmandu | new | ST, TB | Hargreaves 2003 |
Nicobarese, Car | caq | AA, Ni | Das 1977 |
Nicobarese, Central | ncb | AA, Ni | Radhakrishnan 1981 |
Onge | oon | An | Abbi 2006 |
Oriya | ori | IIr, IA | Ray 2003 |
Palula | phl | IIr, IA | Liljegren 2016 |
Paniya | pcg | Dr | Daniel and Stephen 2003 |
Panjabi, Eastern | pan | IIr, IA | Bhatia 1993; Malik 1995 |
Pardhi (Bahelia) | pcl | IIr, IA | Srivastava 1968 |
Parenga (Gorum) | pcj | AA, Mu | Anderson and Rau 2008 |
Parji (Duruwa) | pci | Dr | Burrow and Bhattacharya 1953 |
Pashto, Northeastern | pbu | IIr, Ir | Elfenbein 1997c |
Pashto, Southeastern | pbt | IIr, Ir | Elfenbein 1997c |
Pengo | peg | Dr | Burrow and Bhattacharya 1970 |
Phake | phk | TK | Morey 2005 |
Pnar | pbv | AA, Kh | Ring 2015 |
Purik | prx | ST, TB | Zemp 2014 |
Rabha | rah | ST, TB | Joseph 2007 |
Rājbanshi | rjs | IIr, IA | Wilde 2008 |
Remo (Bonda) | bfw | AA, Mu | Anderson and Harrison 2008a |
Rongmei Naga | nbu | ST, TB | Sreedhar 1979 |
Sadri (Sadani) | sck | IIr, IA | Jordan-Horstmann 1969 |
Santali | sat | AA, Mu | Ghosh 2008 |
Saurashtra | saz | IIr, IA | Norihiko 1991 |
Sawi | sdg | IIr, IA | Bashir 2003 |
Seke, Tangbe | skj | ST, TB | Honda 2003 |
Sema (Sumi Naga) | nsm | ST, TB | Sreedhar 1976 |
Seraiki | skr | IIr, IA | Shackle 1976 |
Shekawati | swv | IIr, IA | Gusain 2001 |
Sherpa | xsr | ST, TB | Kelly 2004 |
Shina, Gilgit | scl | IIr, IA | Radloff 1999 |
Shina, Kohistani | plk | IIr, IA | Schmidt and Kohistani 2008 |
Sikkimese (Denjongka) | sip | ST, TB | Yliniemi 2005 |
Sindhi | snd | IIr, IA | Khubchandani 2003; Nihilani 1999 |
Sinhalese | sin | IIr, IA | Gair 2003 |
Sora | srb | AA, Mu | Anderson and Harrison 2008b |
Spiti | spt | ST, TB | Sharma 1979 |
Sunwar | suz | ST, TB | Borchers 2008 |
Tamang, Eastern | taj | ST, TB | Mazaudon 2003 |
Tamil, Kanniyakumari | tam | Dr | Christdas 1988 |
Tamil, Madras | tam | Dr | Annamalai and Steever 1998; Keane 2004 |
Tangkhul Naga | nmf | ST, TB | Arokianathan 1987 |
Telugu | tel | Dr | Krishnamurti 1998 |
Thado Chin | tcz | ST, TB | Thirumalai 1972; Haokip 2008 |
Thakali | ths | ST, TB | Hari 1970 |
Thangmi | thf | ST, TB | Turin 2004 |
Tharu, Chitwan | the | IIr, IA | Boehm 1998 |
Tharu, Danguara | thl | IIr, IA | Boehm 1998 |
Tharu, Kochila | thq | IIr, IA | Boehm 1998 |
Tharu, Rana | thr | IIr, IA | Boehm 1998 |
Thulung Rai | tdh | ST, TB | Lahaussois 2003 |
Toda | tcx | Dr | Sakthivel 1976 |
Torwali | trw | IIr, IA | Lunsford 2001; Bashir 2003 |
Tshangla | tsj | ST, TB | Andvik 2003 |
Tulu | tcy | Dr | Bhat 1998 |
Urali | url | Dr | Lal 1991 |
Urdu | urd | IIr, IA | Schmidt 2003 |
Vaagri Boli | vaa | IIr, IA | Varma 1970 |
Wakhi | wbl | IIr, Ir | Bashir 2009; Satoko 2005 |
Wambule | wme | ST, TB | Opgenort 2004 |
Yerava (Ravula) | yea | Dr | Mallikarjun 1993 |
Yerukala | yeu | Dr | Varma 1978b |
Zanskari | zau | ST, TB | Hoshi and Tsering 1978; Jerry and Jerry 2013 |
B Languages sampled outside of South Asia
This section lists 55 language varieties that are spoken in the regions surrounding South Asia (e. g., Southeast Asia, East Asia, Central Asia, etc.). These languages are included, along with those from Section 1 (above), on the maps that accompany the paper Retroflexion in South Asia: Typological, genetic, and areal patterns.
Language | ISO | Class | Sources |
---|---|---|---|
Akha | ahk | ST, TB | Lewis 1968 |
Amharic | amh | Semitic | Hayward and Hayward 1999 |
Arabic, Gulf | afb | Semitic | Qafisheh 1977 |
Arabic, San'ani | ayn | Semitic | Watson 2002 |
Ashkun | ask | IIr, Nu | Strand 2011d |
Bai, Yunnan | bfs | ST, TB | Wiersma 2003 |
Burmese | mya | ST, TB | Watkins 2001; Wheatley 2003 |
Cantonese | yue | ST, Ch | Zee 1999; Bauer and Matthews 2003 |
Caodeng Rgyalrong | jya | ST, TB | Sun 2003 |
Cone (Choni) | cda | ST, TB | Jacques 2014 |
Dari | prs | IIr, Ir | Rees 2008 |
Dulong | duu | ST, TB | LaPolla 2003a |
Harsusi | hss | Semitic | Johnstone 1977 |
Jiarong (Cogtse) | jya | ST, TB | Nagano 2003 |
Jinghpo | kac | ST, TB | Qingxia and Diehl 2003 |
Kamviri | xvi | IIr, Nu | Strand 2011a. |
Karen, Pwo | kjp | ST, TB | Kato 2003 |
Kati | bsh | IIr, Nu | Strand 2011b |
Kayah, Eastern | eky | ST, TB | Solnit 2003 |
Khmer (Cambodian) | khm | AA, Khmeric | Bisang 2014 |
Kirghiz | kir | Turkic | Kirchner 1998 |
Koroshi | ktl | IIr, Ir | Nourzaei et al. 2015 |
Lahu | lhu | ST, TB | Matisoff 2003 |
Lao | lao | TK | Enfield 2007 |
Mandaic | mid | Semitic | Malone 1997 |
Mandarin, Standard | cmn | ST, Ch | Duanmu 2002 |
Oirat | xal | Mongolic | Birtalan 2003 |
Palaung, Shwe | pll | AA, Pa | Mak 2012 |
Parachi | prc | IIr, Ir | Kieffer 2009 |
Pashto, Northwest | pbu | IIr, Ir | Elfenbein 1997c |
Pashto, Southwest | pbt | IIr, Ir | Elfenbein 1997c |
Persian (Farsi) | pes | IIr, Ir | Majidi and Ternes 1999; Windfuhr 1997 |
Pumi, Dayang | pmj | ST, TB | Matisoff 1997 |
Pumi, Niuwozi | pmj | ST, TB | Ding 2003 |
Pumi, Wadu | pmi | ST, TB | Daudey 2014 |
Qiang | cng | ST, TB | LaPolla 2003b |
Rawang | raw | ST, TB | Morse 1963 |
Shughni | sgh | IIr, Ir | Edelman and Dodykhudoeva 2009 |
Somali | som | Cushitic | Saeed 1999 |
Tajiki | tgk | IIr, Ir | Windfuhr and Perry 2009 |
Thai | tha | TK | Tingsabadh and Abramson 1999 |
Thebo | cda (?) | ST, TB | Lin 2014 |
Tibetan, Amdo (Labrang) | adx | ST, TB | Makley et al. 1999 |
Tibetan, Amdo (Ndzorge) | adx | ST, TB | Sun 1986 |
Tibetan, Khams (Dege) | khg | ST, TB | Häsler 1999 |
Tibetan, Khams (Dongwang) | khg | ST, TB | Bartee 2014 |
Tibetan, Khams (Kami) | khg | ST, TB | Chirkova 2014 |
Tibetan, Khams (Rgyalthang) | khg | ST, TB | Hongladarom 1996 |
Tibetan, Lhasa | bod | ST, TB | DeLancey 2003; Denwood 1999 |
Turkmen | tuk | Turkic | Schönig 1998 |
Uyghur | uig | Turkic | Comrie 1997; Hahn 1998 |
Uzbek | uzn | Turkic | Boeschoten 1998 |
Vietnamese, Northern | vie | AA, Vietic | Brunelle 2014 |
Vietnamese, Southern | vie | AA, Vietic | Brunelle 2014 |
Waigali | wbk | IIr, Nu | Strand 2011c |
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Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Articles
- Retroflexion in South Asia: Typological, genetic, and areal patterns
- Typological profile of the Great Andamanese family
- Hierarchical and accusative alignment of Verbal Person Marking in Trans-Himalayan
- Profiling Indo-Aryan in the Hindukush-Karakoram: A preliminary study of micro-typological patterns
- Book Reviews
- Hans Henrich Hock: Vedic studies: Language, texts, culture, and philosophy. Proceedings of the 15th World Sanskrit Conference
- Helmut Humbach and Klaus Faiss: Avestica
- Corrigendum
- Corrigendum
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Articles
- Retroflexion in South Asia: Typological, genetic, and areal patterns
- Typological profile of the Great Andamanese family
- Hierarchical and accusative alignment of Verbal Person Marking in Trans-Himalayan
- Profiling Indo-Aryan in the Hindukush-Karakoram: A preliminary study of micro-typological patterns
- Book Reviews
- Hans Henrich Hock: Vedic studies: Language, texts, culture, and philosophy. Proceedings of the 15th World Sanskrit Conference
- Helmut Humbach and Klaus Faiss: Avestica
- Corrigendum
- Corrigendum