Navigating Cultural Landscapes: Textual Insights into English–Arabic–English Translation

3.1 Cultural References

The concept of CRs has become a pivotal area of research within cultural translation, though the concept, as explored by various scholars, has been interchangeably referred to as “culture-bound references” (Nedergaard‐Larsen, 1993), “cultural terms” (Newmark, 1988), “culture-specific references” (Ramière, 2006), “culture-specific items” (Aixela, 1996; Marco, 2018), and “culture-specific concepts” (Baker, 2018). Various studies have thus contributed to developing taxonomies for CRs, with overlapping classifications and categories emerging, as seen in the works of Katan (1999), Nedergaard-Larsen (1993), and Newmark (1988).

While a universally encompassing definition of a CR remains elusive, due to the multiplicity of approaches noted above, researchers have found some agreement on its essential components. Leppihalme (2011), for example, defined CRs as those concepts present in a source culture (SC) that are absent in the target culture (TC), while Nord (2005) extended this definition to include both norms and conventions, such as text-type conventions. Gonzalez and Scott-Tennen (2005) further broadened the scope of CRs by defining them as those expressions denoting any material, ecological, social, religious, linguistic, or emotional manifestations attributable to a specific community. Aixela (1996), however, offered a more precise definition, describing CRs as textually actualized items that pose translation issues due to the nonexistence or altered intertextual status of the referenced item in the cultural system of target text (TT) readers. The resulting complexity is therefore rooted in the fact that expressions in one language may carry connotations and functions that are either absent or at least nuanced differently in the TL. The field of English-Arabic translation of CRs has been explored through both conceptual and empirical studies, with both approaches contributing significantly to the understanding of this complex area. Foundational conceptual studies by scholars such as Dickins et al. (2016) and Ghazala (2008, 2020) have established a theoretical framework that has guided numerous empirical investigations into this subject.

Scholars have proposed various, though interrelated, classifications of culture. Newmark (1988) categorized cultural elements based on aspects including ecology, material culture, social culture, organizations, and customs, while Ivir (1987) classified culture under behaviors, products, and ideas. On the other hand, Ghazala (2020) suggested a classification based on religious, social, political, mental and emotional, linguistic, literary, ecological/geographical, and material characteristics. However, this current study focuses on religious, social, political, and material categories, adopting an integrated approach for their analysis and translation. The topic of CR has been studied from different perspectives: cultural competence (Bahumaid, 2010; Bowker, 2023), subtitling (Alfaify & Ramos Pinto, 2022), religious references (Hassan, 2016), cultural idiomatic expressions (Qassem, 2020), material culture (Hassan, 2016), and bidirectional translation of CRs (Qassem & Al Thowaini, 2023).

In the translation domain, religion is a complex element of culture, as highlighted by Newmark (1988) and Shunnaq (1993). Generally, religious texts and allusions require translators to balance linguistic accuracy with cultural sensitivity, thereby acting as both linguistic bridges and cultural mediators. Baker (2018) and Ghazala (2004) also noted the challenges in translating religious lexicons and idioms due to the fact that direct equivalents are often unavailable. Hassan (2016) focuses on the translation of Islamic religious terms into English, providing a nuanced analysis of when transliteration, rather than translation, is appropriate. He suggests that translation is suitable only when SL and TL words are cross-culturally equivalent, while transliteration is preferable for partially equivalent or non-equivalent situations. Bowker’s (2023) research emphasizes the importance of translators having comprehensive linguistic and cultural expertise.

Social culture, comprising people’s traditions, customs, and habits, is considered a major component of most cultural classifications (Ghazala, 2020; Ivir, 1987; Newmark, 1988; Olk, 2013). However, the task of translating social CRs can be challenging if there are no equivalent expressions in the TL, leading to “social voids” in the rendering. Alfaify and Ramos Pinto’s (2022) investigation of CRs in the translations of subtitles offers practical insights into the challenges of conveying cultural nuances across languages and modalities. They found that domestication strategies facilitate viewers’ understanding of CRs more so than foreignization strategies, although both approaches were had shortcomings. López (2018) investigated the challenges encountered by translators of Jane Austen’s works due to numerous references to the social institutions and material culture of England in the early 1800s. Specifically, López (2018) aimed to determine whether Spanish-language translations of Austen’s unfinished novel, “Sanditon,” are grounded in a comprehensive understanding of Regency England. The analysis of translations from Spain, Argentina, and Mexico reveals that, frequently, the relevance of CRs is overlooked, particularly regarding the gentry class, medical professionals, and forms of transportation. The chosen translation strategies often do not adequately convey the rich historic-cultural implications of Austen’s writings, potentially diminishing the depth and context of the translated texts.

Political culture is inherent in the navigation of sociopolitical disparities, especially where there are significant differences between the political systems of the SC and the TC (Bahumaid, 2010; Schäffner, 2004). The translation of political texts is complex due to specific CRs to history, places, or persons, as well as differences in political ideologies and systems (Qassem & Vijayasarathi, 2015). Aabi and Karama (2016) explored translation as a socio-ideological process influenced by cultural, social, political, and moral systems. It suggests that a culturally determined view of language can enhance translators’ ability to integrate cultural knowledge into their work. The study focuses on translating political discourse from Arabic into English due to the language’s role in shaping perceptions of reality and the politicized nature of news discourse translation. Findings emphasize the importance of considering cultural factors in translation, highlighting how language functions as a shared medium for conveying meanings, values, and conventions.

Material culture, which comprises all tangible artifacts and items, reflects both a culture’s technological innovations and its underlying worldview (Hongwei, 1999; Hassan, 2016). As it includes clothing, food, cities, modes of transportation, and communication, all of these pose unique translation challenges. Hassan’s (2017) analysis of translation techniques in the Microsoft Terminology Collection contributes valuable insights regarding the challenges of translating technical terms (one of the elements of material culture) across languages, particularly in the context of Arabic translation. By examining inconsistencies in translation techniques, Hassan’s work indicates how translation quality and accuracy can be improved in technical domains.

Idiomatic expressions, which are a key feature of linguistic culture, present significant challenges in translation due to their figurative nature (Baker, 2018; Ghazala, 2020). Thus, translators must find ways to navigate these challenges by taking into account the various cultural connotations and linguistic nuances. Bahumaid (2010) investigated the translation competence of postgraduate translator trainees in English-Arabic translation, assessing their awareness of translation procedures and their ability to accurately translate 15 culture-specific expressions from English into Arabic. Bahumaid (2010) found that the trainees performed poorly, with the main types of errors being incorrect meaning, under-translation, and omission, largely attributed to insufficient knowledge of English culture and improper use of dictionaries. Qassem’s studies (2015, 2020) provided deeper insights into the specific difficulties encountered by student translators when translating cultural idiomatic expressions. Qassem and Al Thowaini’s (2023) works provide theoretical frameworks and methodological approaches for understanding translation strategies and bidirectionality in cultural translation.

The current study differs from previous studies in its employment of an integrated approach that encompasses hermeneutics (Gadamer, 1998), translation equivalence (Newmark, 1988), textual analysis (Nord, 2005), and functionality (Reiss, 2000; Vermeer, 1996) to comprehensively analyze all aspects of culture-based texts. In doing so, the analysis aimed to address the translation of CRs within the processes of both comprehension and production, taking into account all of the intratextual and intertextual features of the text under analysis (see Section 4 for details).

3.2 Text Analysis

Text analysis, a term originating from the domain of applied linguistics, has recently found a place in translation studies, being applied by scholars as part of their dissection of the translation process (Qassem & Gurindapalli, 2019). As part of this analytical approach, the ST undergoes a thorough examination to unveil important aspects such as its central theme, the intended readership in the TL, and the similarities and disparities between the ST and TT. The primary objective of text analysis is to identify and preserve those elements that must be retained, and potentially adapted, in translation. Various models of translation-oriented text analysis exist, with some translators considering such analysis throughout the entire translation process and others limiting it to their preliminary analysis. A rationalization of the models of text analysis applied to translation is thus offered below:

The hermeneutics approach to text analysis entails a meticulous and comprehensive examination of a text, with the primary objective being to achieve a thorough understanding of every textual feature (Byrne, 2001). This method requires deep and attentive reading to ensure that no element or dimension of the text remains obscure or is overlooked. The aim is to exceed surface-level comprehension by delving into the nuances and layers of meaning embedded within the text. In essence, the hermeneutics approach aims to unlock the richness of a text by closely scrutinizing its linguistic, thematic, and contextual dimensions, enabling a holistic and profound interpretation of its content to emerge (Nikitina & Kasatkina, 2018).

Newmark (1988) stressed the importance of ST analysis with respect to addressing cultural nuances, resolving textual ambiguities, elucidating the writer’s intentions from the recipient’s viewpoint, and gauging the degree of uniformity or differences in readers’ interpretations. His text analysis model involves comparing the ST and TT in terms of the SL writer in conjunction with the TL readership, as well as examining both SL and TL norms and cultures. Nevertheless, Newmark’s approach has been criticized for its attempts to simultaneously offer a method for handling the translation of texts while establishing a set of criteria for text evaluation. House (2001) instead asserted that the purpose of text analysis is to establish precise equivalence between the ST and TT to evaluate functional correspondence, underscoring the importance of text function and situational dimensions in achieving this function. Her model for situational-functional text analysis thus adapts and modifies various elements to assess a translation more comprehensively. Hatim and Mason (1990) introduced a sociolinguistic model for text analysis, focusing on the “wh”-questions to assess who is translating what, for whom, when, where, why, and in what circumstances. The answers to these questions both determine the priorities of the translation and guide the translator’s decisions, making an accurate understanding of the situation crucial as a source of solutions to translation challenges.

Vermeer (1996), however, argued that text analysis involves the study of attitudes, status, roles, strategies, behaviors, and activities tailored to specific communicative and translational situations. Nevertheless, these discursive categories convey information differently and play a crucial role in understanding the text’s pragmatic intentions. Reiss’ (2000) model, which is rooted in the Skopos theory, emphasizes the primary functions of texts as being informative, expressive, and operative, and notes that each of these functions triggers distinct considerations during the translation process. Informative texts demand explicit statements in the TT, while expressive texts require faithfulness to the perspective of the author of the source, with aesthetics playing a pivotal role. Operative texts, on the other hand, require translation to be tailored to ensure that the intended audience behaves as expected in reaction to the text. Reiss (2000) also provided a comprehensive set of intralinguistic and extralinguistic criteria for assessing the adequacy of a TT, which encompass multiple linguistic components such as semantic equivalence, lexical equivalence, grammatical accuracy, and stylistic features alongside various nonlinguistic determinants, such as the situational context, subject field, time and place, characteristics of the country and culture, receiver and sender considerations, and affective implications, including humor, irony, and emotion, related to the text on the other hand, focuses predominantly on the internal features of the text, neglecting external factors such as the SL writer and TL audience (Seresova & Breveníková, 2019).

3.3 Translation Procedures

Translation procedures are linguistic shifts that convert a text from one language to another, attempting to retain the original essence and contextual meaning while ensuring readability and cultural appropriateness in the TL.

4.1 Culture and CRs

Culture is a broad term that encapsulates a community’s entire way of life (Newmark, 1988). This study focuses on CRs, however, including lexical, textual, verbal, nonverbal, and audiovisual expressions. Gonzalez and Scott-Tennen (2005) noted that these expressions represent the material, ecological, social, religious, linguistic, and emotional aspects specific to a community. Accordingly, in this study, CRs are operationalized as words or phrases pertaining to religious, social, political, material, or linguistic culture. Analysis of the CRs was then applied qualitatively based on the study of the intratextual and intertextual features of the various culture-based texts selected to determine how these might assist in both ST comprehension and the reproduction of meaning in the TL.

4.2 Text Selection

The authors followed purposeful sampling in their selection of culture-based texts. This method emphasized the selection of texts based on both their topic and the inclusion of CRs according to a predetermined, operationalized definition of “CRs” (See 4.1). This strategic choice ensured that each text was not only relevant to the topic but also contained significant cultural elements as defined by the study. The operationalized definition played a key role in this selection process by ensuring a consistent and focused approach to text analysis, particularly in terms of exploring specific cultural themes. Purposeful sampling is highly beneficial in qualitative research, as it enables an in-depth examination of texts that is closely aligned with the cultural aspects of the study as, unlike quantitative research, which aims to generate broad generalizability, this method is significantly concerned with developing a detailed understanding of the cultural dimensions being analyzed. The sources for the final selected texts were The Guardian, The Sunday Times, the BBC, and The Observer, while the Arabic text was taken from Dickins et al. (2016 ^[1], p. 94) (see Table 2).

The English and Arabic texts were chosen based on classifications of CRs previously established and developed by the researcher. These classifications encompassed various aspects of culture, namely, religious, social, political, material, and linguistic. By selecting texts that fell into these categories, the aim was to capture a wide spectrum of cultural nuances and complexities. The second criterion related to the authenticity of the selected texts. Authenticity was deemed crucial to ensure that the chosen texts were genuine representations of the relevant culture. To meet this criterion, texts were sourced from Dickins et al. (2016) and Ghazala (2020, 2008), sources that are devoted to the problems that emerge from the cultural differences between English and Arabic, ensuring the quality and reliability of the selection of appropriate texts.

5.1 Religious Culture

Translation analysis of religious texts is a multidisciplinary field that combines linguistics, theology, cultural studies, and history, offering insights not only into the religious texts themselves but also into the broader human experience of faith, culture, and communication. The text below includes religious references, the translation of which requires a profound understanding of both the religious beliefs and practices of Islam. The integrated approach developed in the method is thus used in the analysis of the following religious text (see Table 3).

5.2 Social Culture

The text below must be read in the context of certain social concepts that require knowledge of the ST and TT cultures. An integrated approach to text 2 is offered in Table 4.

5.3 Political Culture

Text 4 features political references to decision-making in the White House. Employing the theoretical framework of the study can thus assist in developing better comprehension of the text and its production in the TL.

5.4 Material Culture

Text 5 includes CRs about material culture, more specifically food. The employment of an integrated approach is thus required to assist in ST understanding and TT production (Table 7).